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Infrared sensing in vampire bats
Vampire bats are the only known mammals whose entire nutrition relies on blood from mammals or birds. In the family Phyllostomidae and the subfamily Desmodontinae, there are three known species of vampire bats : ''Desmodus rotundus'' (common vampire bat), ''Diphylla ecaudata'' (hairy-legged vampire bat), and ''Diaemus youngi'' (white-winged vampire bat).〔Tellgren-Roth, Åsa, Katharina Dittmar, Steven E. Massey, Cecillia Kemi, Christian Tellgren-Roth, Peter Savolainen, Leslie A. Lyons, and David A. Liberles. "Keeping the blood flowing – plasminogen activator genes and feeding behavior in vampire bats." Naturwissenschaften 96 (2009): 39-47. .〕 Most of the referenced research on infrared sensing in vampire bats has been done on the common vampire bat because this is the most commonly found species.〔Mulheisen, M. and R. Anderson. 2001. Animal Diversity Web. "Desmodus rotundus." Accessed November 14, 2011 http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Desmodus_rotundus.html.〕 These bats have developed a specialized system using infrared-sensitive receptors on their nose-leaf to prey on homeothermic (warm-blooded) vertebrates.〔Kürten, Ludwig., and Uwe Schmidt. "Thermoperception in the Common Vampire Bat (Desmodus rotundus)." Journal of Comparative Physiology 146 (1982): 223-228. .〕 Trigeminal nerve fibers that innervate these IR-sensitive receptors may be involved in detection of infrared thermal radiation emitted by their prey. This may aid bats in locating blood-rich areas on their prey.〔〔Kishida, Reiji, Richard C. Goris, Shin-Ichi Terashima, and Jacob L. Dubbeldam. "A suspected infrared-recipient nucleus in the brainstem of the vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus." Brain Research 322 (1984): 351-55. .〕 In addition, neuroanatomical and molecular research has suggested possible similarities of IR-sensing mechanisms between vampire bats and IR-sensitive snakes.〔〔Kürten, Ludwig, Uwe Schmidt, and Klaus Schäfer. "Warm and Cold Receptors in the Nose of the Vampire Bat Desmodus rotundus." Naturwissenschaften 71 (1984): 327-328. .〕〔Gracheva, Elena O., Nicholas T. Ingolia, Yvonne M. Kelly, Julio F. Cordero-Morales, Gunther Hollopeter, Alexander T. Chesler, Elda E. Sánchez, John C. Perez, Jonathan S. Weissman, and David Julius. "Molecular basis of infrared detection by snakes." ''Nature'' 464 (2010): 1006-11. .〕〔Gracheva, Elena O., Julio F. Codero-Morales, José A. González-Carcaía, Nicholas T. Ingolia, Carlo Manno, Carla I. Aranguren, Jonathan S. Weissman, and David Julius. "Ganglion-specific splicing of TRPV1 underlies infrared sensation in vampire bats." ''Nature'' 476 (2011): 88-91. .〕 Infrared sensing in vampire bats has not yet been hypothesized to be image forming, as it was for IR-sensitive snakes.〔Newman, E.A., and P.H. Hartline. "The Infrared ‘vision’ of snakes." Scientific American 20 (1982): 116-127".〕 While the literature on IR-sensing in vampire bats is thin, progress continues to made in this field to identify how vampire bats can sense and use infrared thermal radiation.
==Behavior==
Vampire bats were not studied in their natural habitats until about 1935. During predation, bats first spend a few minutes in the air circling the target prey, eventually landing on the back or neck crest of the animal, and sometimes the ground. They then proceed to search for a suitable spot to bite, which can take seconds to minutes, and usually will feed on the neck or flank. The same spot may be fed on multiple times by different bats.〔Greenhall, Arthur M., Uwe Schmidt, and William Lopez-Forment. "Attacking Behavior of the Vampire Bat, Desmodus rotundus, Under Field Conditions in Mexico." Biotropica 3 (1971): 136-41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2989817.〕 Kürten and Schmidt (1982) were the first to suggest that infrared perception in vampire bats is possibly used in detecting regions of maximal blood flow on targeted prey. Although warm receptors are also found in the facial regions of species such as mice, humans, and dogs, the extreme low-temperature sensitivity of these receptors on vampire bats suggest specialization for sensing infrared. (see section on Physiology).〔Schäfer, Klaus, Hans A. Braun, and Ludwig Kürten. "Analysis of cold and warm receptor activity in vampire bats and mice." Pflügers Arch 412 (1988): 188-194. .〕
In 1982, Kürten and Schmidt performed behavioral studies to examine the ability of vampire bats to detect infrared radiation. Their study showed that when given a choice between a warm and cold object, vampire bats can be trained to choose the infrared emitting signal unit (SU). Two SUs made of a heating element with a copper plate backing were mounted on a wall. For each trial, one SU was warmed while the other was maintained at room temperature. The heating and warming of the SUs were interchanged at random between trials. If bats chose the warm SU correctly, they were rewarded with food through a feeding tube below each SU. In this study, olfactory and visual stimuli were minimized to ascertain that only thermal cues affected behavioral learning. Olfactory cues were eliminated by the full feeding tube attached behind the opening from which the bats received their rewards. Dim lighting minimized visual cues of the two SUs.〔
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